TOP TEN USES OF VIDEO IN EDUCATION BASED ON DALE'S EXPERIENCES

Introduction

The aim of this section is to highlight the range of innovative uses of digital video in education with reference to their relative pedagogical value. The ‘Top Ten’ is a populist format but the underpinning pedagogical approach was inspired by Uskov (2005) who in his National Science Foundation project “Technology for advanced e-learning” investigated the perceived value of among video among teachers and learners. As part of his advocacy for increased use of this media he referred to Edgar Dale’s ‘Cone of Experience’ (Dale, 1969), originally developed to highlight the role of media in learning. According to Dale’s intuitive model, learners learn better by “doing” rather than through more passive experiences such as reading and observing. “Learning by doing” is nowadays often termed “experiential learning” or “action learning”. At the narrow top of Dale’s cone are experiences such as reading which are furthest removed from real life. At the broad base of the cone are immersive, contextualized learning experiences (see Fig. 1).

Revisiting this list, it seemed that Dale’s model could usefully be reinterpreted. Although originally designed to show the role of educational media somewhere between reading and real activity, the changes in video production technologies described above enabled the ‘doing’ model to be applied to a wide range of educational media approaches. It provides a way of looking at educational video based on the principle that increasing degrees of learner participation may provide increasing quality of learning. 

Fig. 1 Dale's Cone of Experience (Dale, 1969, p. 107)

• The Top Ten Countdown

The Top Ten is based on Dale’s concept that increasingly levels of activity encourage better learning. The Top Ten covers what we believe are particularly innovative applications of digital video in terms of increasing levels of student participation and (inter)activity. It will be clear there is considerable technical overlap between the various categories, and the distinction is based on pedagogical aim. As is customary, the Top Ten list will be presented in reverse order.

• Number 10 - Talking head lectures and tutorials

For many practitioners, the starting point for self-generated educational video is some form of ‘talking head’, that is a recording of a lecture, tutorial or lab in which the main focus is the teacher who speaks directly to a live audience or the camera. This has the advantage of familiarity of format, role and content for the lecturer and raw video be generated quite quickly if, as is usual, a live event is recorded. The results when transferred into digital video format can be disappointing however in terms of learner engagement. Image composition is often a problem as teachers in live events often move about, which can be distracting and  image and sound quality may be less than optimal if the event has been captured live. Nonetheless the idea of capturing an otherwise ephemeral learning event is which can then be accessed at any time is attractive fro both students and teachers (Uskov 2005). Moreover if the teacher is a good ‘performer’ his or her enthusiasm and approach can humanise a subject and engage a student. The value of humour, intonation, body language, articulation and so on cannot be underestimated; Gladwell (2005) describes research that that students could rate the quality of a teacher after watching only a few minutes of videotaped performance.  Post-production editing can make the resource more accessible and engaging. Digital technology makes it relatively easy to navigate and search within a video presentation, the recording is often segmented into short topic-related sequences and presentation slides can be synchronised to the video. More ambitious designs attempt even more interactivity by posing questions with feedback (sometimes also in video format) at key points. In conclusion, although the ‘talking head’ is a relatively passive use of video, if well designed and/or featuring a good performance, a ‘virtual professor’ can be surprisingly engaging.

• Number 9 - Using authentic archive video material

A second common route into educational video for teachers is to use existing video and audio archive resources. Until recently this involved digitisation of videotapes but in recent years there has been an international proliferation of digital archives offering copyright-cleared digital media resources to the education sector. Materials from the growing number of national portals can be searched, selected, sourced, edited and embedded into for example a virtual learning environment. One problem is that coverage in many subject areas is still very patchy and there is a still a lack of general awareness of how particular clips can be used to illustrate specific teaching points. These may be transitional issues as online libraries grow and users begin to exchange ideas and even resources themselves.

• Number 8 - Animated screen shots

An important genre of educational video does not involve shooting or using ‘live action’ material at all. This is the use of software such as TechSmith Camtasia and Macromedia Captivate to record and edit animated screenshots of using software together with a soundtrack in the form of ‘mini-movies’. This general technology has been available for some years but was hampered by large file size until increasing bandwidth made it possible to deliver such resources to the desktop. Their most usual application is to train users to use software, but presentations can also be captured along with audio tracks. Other software such as Photo to Movie allows the designer  pan over and zoom into still images, again adding a soundtrack to potent narrative effect. In all cases the user can select, skip and fast-forward to specific segments in the materials. The increasing use of Adobe Flash software to combine video clips with animation is beginning to blur the distinction between live and computer-generated material.

• Number 7 - Instructional 'how to videos' of a practical activity

Video is used to show the process, procedures and different stages of doing something concrete. It is also used as a demonstration method to show experts and apprentices in practice. Instructional video has a long history in education but a major advantage of the digital format is that a linear narrative is no longer necessary and users can chose from a menu of sequences depending on level and need. The best examples such as the BBC “Good Shooting Guide” (2005) may combine animated screen shots, talking heads and archive material (as case studies) to produce an attractive, engaging and relatively interactive experience for the learner. The disadvantage is that designing stand-alone online learning packages is challenging, time-consuming and can be expensive.

• Number 6 - Interviewing an expert or expert presentation

From a technical perspective, bringing a guest speaker into the classroom can be similar to recording a talking head, but the pedagogical aim is usually to contextualise learning through the often tacit knowledge and insights of a practitioner or expert, or to present an alternative viewpoint. Such events are used to trigger further discussion with the contents of the video resource being a point of reference for participants. Mark-up tools are emerging to enable students and tutors to attach comments to specific items of the video and audio track (e.g. Wallace and Donald, 2006).

• Number 5 - Video blogs 'think aloud'

Educational blogs have proliferated where the subject (learner or teacher) record their thoughts and actions. The success of blogs is associated with informal personal reflection and as we have seen above video and audio can capture tone, humour and spontaneity. The subject can be on their own doing a video diary or be prompted by an off-camera person.

• Number 4 - Video case studies/simulations/role plays

Here the intention is to simulate an event such as a lab experiment where safety might potentially be at risk or to engage in a role-playing situation in the form of a case study where the students can experiment with different responses and behaviours. By analysing these behaviours students can gain a greater insight into the issues at stake. Video in this case provides ‘real life’ context, and/or emotional impact. West and Donald (2006) comment that in their multilayered simulation of a social work case study “Clydetown”, “the use of audio and video has been demonstrated to add an authentic voice to the subject matter being examined”.

• Number 3 - Videoing real events or situations

The purpose here is to capture an action that cannot be physically brought into the classroom. This might apply to any outdoor event or situation, typically field trips. Similarly video provides access to events in which it is difficult for large groups of students to participate such as a clinical events and industrial environments. Real life events can be observed, interpreted and discussed. Access to external experiences can provide opportunities for contextualisation and knowledge transfer.

• Number 2 - Presentation/performance skills and feedback

Reflective video self-modelling has been used for many years to enhance practical skills with learners such as diverse as teachers, medical students, theatre students and sales students (Millar, 2005).   The aim is to capture, review and enhance performance of individuals and groups through reflection and discussion. Strathie (2006) notes that this approach promotes self-directed learning, increases motivation and activates learners to find their own solutions, so increasing self-confidence. Although guided, the learner is an equal partner in this process. These recorded performances can be further used as part of students’ e-portfolios.

• Number 1 - Students create their own video

So far, we have largely discussed how teachers can make and use video. However we have put at the top of our list the creation of short videos by students for projects or portfolios. In Dale’s terms ‘doing the real thing’ can be considered the most effective context for learning. Allam (2006) observes that the creative challenge of using moving images and sound  to communicate a topic indeed engaging and insightful, but adds that it also enables students to acquire a range of transferable skills in addition to filmmaking itself. These include research skills, collaborative working, problem solving, technology and organisational skills. A balance has to be struck between learning about filmmaking, learning about the subject and acquiring other relevant skills. Other than in media studies the main emphasis should be on video production as a process for gaining deep insight about the subject. From the pedagogical perspective the focus is on the student and expands the idea introduced in the previous application of the student as a co-creator of knowledge.  Although Allam reports high quality outputs, it is the process of creating the video which may be as important as the resource itself. There are limitations. If the students are new to filmmaking there may be a fairly steep learning curve so in general creating videos are more suitable for large groupwork projects.

• Conclusions

The Top Ten is based on Dale’s concept that increasingly levels of activity encourage better learning. According to this model students producing a video about a subject may be more effective pedagogically that students passively watching a video. Although we believe this is a useful framework we would hesitate to suggest Number One is always pedagogically superior to Number Ten. Educational contexts are always complex and inevitably resource dependent. ‘Talking heads’ at the bottom of our list may be appropriate, useful and effective in many circumstances. Moreover, as we have seen they may be designed or used in ways that are both interactive and engaging. Similarly archive materials, animated screenshots, instructional resources can be used in a variety of active designs.  Expert interviews lend themselves more to reflection and discussion and the entire top five have an increasing focus on student participation.

The intention of the Top Ten, however, is to be descriptive rather than prescriptive, to present a range of both well-known and comparatively novel approaches that may be useful in diverse circumstances.  Nevertheless the participative model provides a useful perspective to consider how we expand the use of video in education in ways that are interactive, integrated and creative. This participatory model underpins our vision a dynamic visually rich learning environment where moving images and sounds, often sourced from video archives but just as commonly produced by teachers and students becomes increasingly mainstream. Just as importantly by creating and sharing video for assignments, assessment or reflective digital portfolios video is embedded in the everyday activities of the students.

Dr Clive Young, VideoAktiv

Reference: http://www.videoaktiv.org